Nova objava - 25.03.2020 11:22 material for AD classes, for the week 23/17th of March, 2020- REVISION OF REFERENCING , SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS



  • Cohesionis the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning. It is related to the broader concept of coherence.
  • There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion, which is based on structural content—and lexical cohesion, which is based on lexical content and background knowledge. A cohesive text is created in many different ways.  There are five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction.
  • Referencing

    - pronouns and possessive adjectives (I, me, she, you, we, my, mine)

    - demonstrative pronouns (this, these, that, those)

    -  comparative adjectives/pronouns (another, other, such)

    -definite article (the)

    - demonstrative adverbs (here, there, now, then).....

  • What is anaphoric reference?
  • Anaphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something mentioned earlierin the discourse.
  • Here’s an example of anaphoric reference:
  • Michael went to the bank. Hewas annoyed because itwas closed.
  • Herefers to Michael.
    itrefers to the bank.
  • Anaphoric reference often makes use of the definite article the, because one of the functions of the definite article is to indicate that something has already been mentioned. Here’s another example:
  • He sat down at the table and took a small box from his pocket. The objectfelt heavy in his hands. Inside itwas the key to his future.
  • Both the objectand itrefer back to a small box in the first sentence.
  • What is cataphoric reference?
  • Cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something mentioned laterin the discourse.
  • Here are some examples of cataphoric reference:
  • Although I phone herevery week, my mother still complains that I don’t keep in touch often enough.
  • Herrefers to my mother.
  • The bookwas there on the table. I’d never read Moby Dick and I didn’t intend to do so now.
  • The bookrefers to Moby Dick.
  • What is exophoric reference?
  • Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something outsidethe discourse.
  • Here are some examples of exophoric reference:
  • They‘re late again, can you believe it?”
    “I know! Well, they’d better get here soon or     it‘ll get cold.”
  • Theyrefers to some people outside the discourse known to both speakers.
    Italso refers to something that both speakers know about (perhaps the dinner).
  • The use of exophoric reference requires some shared knowledge between two speakers, or between writer and reader(s).
  • Substitution
  • It is a grammatical relation where one grammatical item substitutes another (lexical) one. The substituted item can only be interpreted by reference to the original longer item.
  • Nominal Substitution One/ Ones
  • The elements of nominal substitution are one, onesand same. The substitution one/ ones always function as head of a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself head of nominal group. Look at the example below:
  • a)My pen is too blunt. I must get a sharper one (1).
  • The word one is the substitution for pen.
  • b)I shoot the hippopotamus with bullets made of platinum because, if I use leaden ones, his hide is sure to flatten ‘em (2). (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 91).
  • In sentence (1) oneis the substitution for pen. Hence the full form of the sentence is my penis too blunt. I must get a sharperpen. Whereas in example (2) bullets is the head of nominal group leaden ones. The full form of the nominal group is leaden bullets.
  • Verbal Substitution
  • place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and it is always in the final position in the group. Here are the examples:
  • a)Does Jean sing? – No, but Mary does(Halliday and Hasan, 1979: 118)
  • b)‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you doeither!’ (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 112).
  •  
  • Inthe example a) doessubstitues sing; in b) do subtitues know the meaning of half those long words.
  •  
  • The substitution do is almost always anaphoric; it may presuppose an element within the same sentence as itself, so that there is already a structural relation linking the presupposed to the presupposing clause; but it frequently substitutes an element in a preceding sentence, and therefore it is a primary source of cohesion within a text. Only occasionally, it is cathaporic, which is within the sentence and does not make contribution to cohesion.
  • Clausal Substitution
  • The words used as substitution are soand not.There are three environtments in which clausal substitution take place: report, condition and modality. In each of these environments it may take either of two forms, positive or negative; the positive is expressed by so, the negative by not.
  • a)Substitution of Reported Clauses
  • Look at the example below:
  • ‘...if you’ve seen them so often, of course you know what they’re like’.
  • ‘I believe so,’ Alice replied throughtfully.(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 131).
  •  
  • Here, sosubstitutes I know what they’re like.
  • The reported clause that is substituted by soor notis always declarative, whatever the mood of the presupposed clauses. There is no substitution for interogative or imperative indirect questions or commands), and therefore the clauses substitution do not following verbs such as wonder, order or ask.
  •  Substitution of Conditional Clauses
  •  
  • The second context for clausal substitution os that of conditional structure. Conditional clauses are frequently substituted by so and not, especially following if but also in other forms such as assuming so, suppose not:
  • (1)Everyone seems to think he’s guilty.If so, noo doubt he’ll offer to resign.
  • (2)We should recognize the place when we come to it.
  • Yes, but supposing not:thenn what do we do? (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134).
  •  
  • In sentence (1) sosubstitutes he is guilty,whereas not in the sentence (2) substitues we don’t recognize the place when we come to it.
  • 2)We should recognize the place when we come to it.
  • Yes, but supposing not:thenn what do we do? (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134).
  •  
  • In sentence (1) sosubstitutes he is guilty,whereas not in the sentence (2) substitues we don’t recognize the place when we come to it.
  • Substitution of Modalized Clauses
  • Finally, soand notoccur as substitution for clauses expressing modality. Look at the example below:
  • ‘Oh, I beg your pardon!’ cried Alice hastily, afraid that she had hurt the poor animal’s feelings. ‘I quite forgot you didn’t like cats’.
  • Not like cats!’ cried the mouse, in a shrill, passionate voice,
  • ‘Would you like cats if you were me?’
  • ‘Well, perhaps not, said Alice in a shooting tone: … (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134).
  • Ellipsis
  • Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised.

    If substitution is replacing one word with another, ellipsis is the absence of that word, "something left unsaid". Ellipsis  requires retrieving specific information that can be found in the preceding text.
  • There are three types of ellipsis too: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
  •  
  • (a) Do you want to hear another song? I know twelve more [songs]
  • (b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought] lilies.
  • (c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on the second
  • Standard instances of N-ellipsis in English are introduced by a limited set of determiner- and adjective-like elements (possessives, cardinal and ordinal numbers, other quantifiers). In the examples throughout this article, the ellipsis is indicated using a smaller font and subscripts, the element that introduces the ellipsis is in bold, and the antecedent to the ellipsis is underlined:
  • When Susan brings her dog, Sam brings hisdogtoo. - N-ellipsis introduced by possessive
  • Jill likes your storyeven though she hates Bill'sstory. 
  • N-ellipsis introduced by possessive -s
  • Because you bought two donuts, I bought threedonuts. 
  • - N-ellipsis introduced by cardinal numberI caught the first trainbefore you caught the secondtrain. - N-ellipsis introduced by ordinal number
  • Someschool kidslike syntax, and some school kids don't. - N-ellipsis introduced by a quantifier
  • Eachstudentwas helped so that each student would understand. - N-ellipsis introduced by a quantifier
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